Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Abt 1014, England; Konge i England da faren, Svein Tjugeskjegg, døde i 1014.
• Occupation: Abt 1019, Danmark; Konge.
• Occupation: Abt 1028, Norge; Konge. Nå er Daneveldet på sitt største.

Notes:

Birth:
Kong Knut ble døpt Lambart og omtalte seg selv som det. Tilnavnene den store eller den mektige fikk han fordi det lyktes ham å legge Norge og deler av Sverige inn under riket sitt.

Occupation:
Hæren utropte ham til konge av England, mens høvdingene i hjemlandet Danmark utropte den eldre broren Harald Sveinsson til konge av Danmark. Sannsynligvis hadde det vært kong Sveins intensjon at brødrene skulle arve hvert sitt rike. Da broren Harald døde 4 år senere arvet Knut også Danmark.

Som konge i England ble Knut førts kastet ut av engelske stormenn, men kom tilbake i 1015 med en stor hær. Han slo sin engelske rival, Edmund Jernside, og gjenerobret med det kongemakten i England i slaget ved Assatun i 18.oktober 1016.

I England skulle flere kamper til for å vinne makten over det meste av England da den forviste kong Ethelred den rådville kom tilbake ved Sveins død. I samarbeid med den senere Olav den hellige ble Knut konge av England i 1016.

I 1017 giftet han seg strategisk med kong Ethelreds enke, Emma av Normandie. Hun var datter av normannerhertugen Robert. Knuts søster, Estrid (datter av Svein og Sigrid Storråde), giftet seg med broren til hertugen, Richard.

Olav den hellige og Anund Jakob av Sverige i tillegg til svenske Ulf Jarl inngikk et forbund mot kong Knut.
I 1026 seiret Knut over dem i slaget ved Helgeå i Skåne. Samme år skal han ha latt Ulf jarl myrde i Roskilde domkirke (Ulf Jarl må ikke forveksles med en annen av samme navn i England).

Sluttet fred med sveakongen Anund Jakob og angrep Olav Digre sommeren 1028 med 50 skip, annen kilde sier 1.400 skip. Nordmennene sluttet opp om ham og tvang Olav Digre til å flykte. Han innsatte først sin søstersønn Håkon Eiriksson Ladejarl som konge. Da denne druknet innsatte Knut sin egen sønn, Svein Knutsen. Nå var Danevelde på sitt største.

Knut var da en mektig konge. Da han besøkte Roma for å se pave Johannes 19. krone den tyske kong Konrad til keiser av det hellige tysk-romeske riket, ble han hyllet som den nest mektigste kristne fyrsten. Knut så på seg selv mest som konge av England og var lite tid i de andre landene. Han tok seg særlig av England, hvor han førte et heldig indre styre.

Hardeknut Knutsson, konge etter sin far 1035-1042.
Mistet styret i England til sin bror Harald Harefot allerede 1035 og Norge til Magnus den gode samme år.
Fikk igjen styret i England 1039 da Harald døde. Forlikte seg med Magnus 1038, hvor de ble enige om at lengstlevende skulle arve begge riker.

Ifølge islandsk saga var Knut høy og flott, men hadde en krokete nese.

Died:
Han døde i 1035 i Shaftesbury, Dorset, og ble gravlagt i domkirken i Winchester.

Knut married Alfiva before 1015. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Notes:

Married:
Alfiva og Knut hadde sønnen Svein sammen. Han var omtrent 15 år gammel da faren slo Olav Haraldsen på Stiklestad og befestet posisjonen som konge i Norge også. Knut følte seg trygg på sin posisjon i Norge, men han viste ikke at mirakelhistoriene skulle gjøre Olav til - den hellige - en vel så mektig konge etter sin død.
Knut gjorde sin 15-årige sønn Svein til visekonge i Norge, men det var vel egentlig hans mor Alfiva som styrte landet. Hun sto blant annet for de strenge Alfivalovene, som var utformet for å styrke kongedømmet, og var i bruk i flere tiår.
Så fort kong Knut døde så raknet det. Alfiva var en knallhard og upopulær hersker i landet på sin sønns vegne, og det tok derfor ikke lang tid før Olav Haraldsens sønn Magnus vant makten i Norge. Magnus ble også konge i Danmark i 1042.

Knut married Emma av Normandie about 1017. Emma (daughter of Richard av Normandie, "Richard 1" and Gunnor Haraldsdatter av Crepon) was born in Normandie, Frankrike; died about 1052. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Notes:

Married:
For å sikre sin stilling på den engelske tronen mot potensielle trusler, og vinne engelske adelige for sin sak, giftet Knut seg i 1017 med enken etter den tidligere kongen, kong Ethelred 2 den rådville, Emma av Normandie.

Ethelred forsvarte landet med skiftende hell mot stadig overfall av vikinger. Ble slått av Svein Tjugeskjegg (Knuts far) og flyktet til Normandie, kom tilbake, men døde i London før angrepet i 1016.

Fra Snorre: Magnus den godes saga:

Kong Harald i England døde 5 år etter sin far, Knut den mektige. Han ble jordet hos sin far i Winchester.
Etter hans død tok Horda-Knut, Haralds bror, en annen sønn til Gamle-Knut, kongedømmet i England. Da var han konge over England og Danevelde, og han rådde over dette riket i 2 år. Han døde sottedøden i England og er jordet i Winchester hos sin far.
Etter hans død ble Edvard den gode tatt til konge i England; han var sønn til Englandskongen Adalråd og dronning Emma, som var datter til Rikard Rudajarl. Kong Edvard var halvbror på morsida til Harald og Horda-Knut.

Gunnhild het ei datter til Gamle-Knut og Emma; hun var gift med keiser Henrik i Saksland. Han ble kalt Henrik den milde. Gunnhild var 3 år i Saksland, og så ble hun sjuk og døde 2 år etter sin far, kong Knut.

Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Abt 0986, Danmark; Konge.
• Occupation: Abt 1000, Norge; Konge.
• Occupation: 25 Dec 1013, England; Konge.

Notes:

Birth:
Man vet ikke når Svein ble født, men antar at han var i 50-årene da han døde.

Occupation:
Svein etterfulgte sin far kong Harald Blåtann som konge av Danmark, sannsynligvis på slutten av 986 eller tidlig i 987. Muligens gjorde han opprør mot sin egen far og tok kongsmakten, tiltvang seg makten, drepte eller fordrev faren fra riket. I tillegg erobret han senere England, skjønt han døde fem uker senere.

Harald Blåtann fikk sønnen Svein med en kvinne ved navn Gunhild. I noen gamle kilder opptrer Svein som en illegitim sønn av Harald Blåtann og ble oppfostret av den mytiske vikinghøvdingen Palnatoke, jarl av Jomsborg. Selv om det ikke er blitt bevist på noe vis, er det blitt hevdet at Svein ikke arvet kongedømmet etter sin far, men at han gjorde opprør og nedkjempet og drepte ham i et slag.
Det er kanskje ikke riktig, men det er indikasjoner på at Harald Blåtann ikke frivillig ga opp kronen for sønnen. Det eneste som vi vet med sikkerhet er at Svein kom på tronen etter farens død i 985, 986 eller 987. Snorre Sturlasson skriver i Heimskringla at Svein ville ha halvparten av kongsmakten, noe Harald Blåtann nektet. Svein gikk da sammen med Jomsvikingene til fosterfaren Palnatoke til strid mot faren. Det ble et voldsomt slag som gamlekongen vant, men han fikk sår som han døde av og Svein ble dermed likevel konge.

Historikerne mener at Svein regjerte på samme tid som Olof Skötkonung, som Svein var alliert med mot Olav Tryggvason. Olof var videre den første konge av det som tilsvarer hele Sverige, unntatt Skåne, mens Erik Seiersæl styrte en region rundt Uppsala.

Svein preget mynter med sitt eget bilde som den første danske konge og inskripsjonen lød:

Zven, Rex ad Dener (Svein, konge av danene).

Hans far, Harald Blåtann, aksepterte kristendommen en gang på 960-tallet. Da kongefamilien ble kristne ble det sagt at Svein også fikk det kristne navnet Otto for å ære den tyske keiseren. Men det finnes få opptegnelser som viser at Svein brukte dette navnet.

På dansk blir han kalt for Svend Tveskæg og på engelsk for Sweyn Forkbeard. Det norske tilnavnet Tjugeskjegg, som er mer korrekt på norsk enn på dansk, kommer ikke av at skjegget hans var delt, for han hadde sannsynligvis ikke fullskjegg. Tilnavnet kommer fra det norrøne ordet tjúgu-skegg på grunn av hans lange overskjegg eller mustasjer som hang ned og som lignet på en høygaffel. Tilnavnet var sannsynligvis i bruk allerede i hans levetid.

Occupation:
Kong Svein er Danmarks store vikingkonge. Han var med på å lokke norskekongen Olav Tryggvason i en felle og drepe ham i raseri over at kong Olav hadde gått til sengs med hans søster Tyra Haraldsdatter. Sigrid ble hånet av norskekongen Olav Trygvasson, og drev mann og sønn til kamp mot Olav. Svein seiret over Olav Tryggvesson i slaget ved Svolder år 1000 og hadde uinnskrenket makt over det sørlige Norge. Svein seiret senere over Edmund Jernside 1013 og la under seg deler av Danelagen.

Både før og etter Svein ble konge herjet han i viking.
I begynnelsen var han også alliert med norske Olav Tryggvason i England og kunne ved selvsyn se at nordmannen var en veldig slåsskjempe og grusom og ondskapsfull som fiende.

I henhold til Snorre Sturlasson var det Svein Tjugeskjegg som tok initiativ til å sende en stor dansk invasjonsflåte til Norge i 986 for få den norske herskeren Håkon jarl avsatt og drept. I slaget som sto i Hjørungavåg gikk danskene på et tungt nederlag den første gangen Norge som samlet nasjon hevdet selvstendighet mot Danmark i krig. Den danske hæren var forsterket med de fryktede Jomsvikingene, ledet av Sigvalde jarl, høvding av Jomsborg etter Palnatoke.

Et sagn, som Snorre gjentar, sier at Svein ble tatt til fange av Sigvalde, ført til Jomsborg og tvunget til å slutte fred med venderkongen Boleslaus den tapre. Nødtvunget gikk Svein med på avtalen. Sigvalde jarl var allerede gift med Boleslaus’ datter Astrid. Avtalen ble sikret ved at Svein ble gift med Gunhilda, en annen av Boleslaus’ døtre, og Boleslaus selv ble gift med Tyra Haraldsdatter, Svein søster. Med Gunhilda fikk Svein sønnene Harald Sveinsson og Knut den mektige.

I Norge ble Olav Tryggvason konge i 995 etter at han var blitt kristen, hvilket ikke hadde gjort ham mildere, snarere tvert imot. I henhold til Olav Tryggvasons saga forsøker han å fri til den svenske adelskvinnen Sigrid Storråde, men når hun ikke vil skifte tro slår han henne i ansiktet og kaller henne en hedensk hund. I Polen sitter Sveins søster Tyra Haraldsdatter og misliker sterkt at hun er blitt giftet bort til en gammel konge som i tillegg er hedning. Hun flykter derfra og helt til Norge, møter kong Olav og sørger for å gifte seg med ham.

I Danmark sitter Svein Tjugeskjegg og får høre at avtalen med den polske kongen er blitt brutt, og at søsteren i tillegg har gått til sengs med hans gamle våpenbror fra tiden i England. Svein har i mellomtiden giftet seg med Sigrid Storråde som kong Olav hadde forkastet, og i henhold til Snorre egger Sigrid opp Svein Tjugeskjegg, ved å si at norskekongen har ligget med søsteren hans uten å spørre deg om lov, og slikt ville ikke foreldrene dine ha funnet seg i.

I Norge driver Tyra med sitt eget renkespill og egger kong Olav ved å håne ham at han ikke tør stille opp mot Svein Tjugeskjegg. Olav blir rasende, ruster til leidang og sier:
Aldri skal vel jeg være redd for bror din, kong Svein. Og om vi to møtes, da skal han vike.

Den personlige striden mellom Svein og Olav som blir framprovosert av de to dronningene Sigrid og Tyra, er nok en litterær konstruksjon fra Snorres side, men resultatet er uansett at Olav Tryggvason i år 1000 faller i slaget ved Svolder. En av de som kjempet mot ham var sønnen til Håkon jarl, Eirik Håkonsson. Han er blitt gift med datteren til Svein, Gyda Sveinsdatter, og i henhold til Snorre ble det et godt vennskap mellom Eirik og Svein.

Eirik oppnår det han ønsket ved å bli Norges reelle hersker, selv om landet formelt er underlagt kong Svein.

Snorre sier for øvrig at Sveins første hustru Gunhilda av Polen ble syk og døde slik at han kunne gifte seg med svenske Sigrid Storråde. Det er nok feil for andre kilder vitner at Gunnhild dro til Vendland eller Polen og ble der til Svein døde i 1014 og at hun da vendte tilbake til Danmark for å være sammen med sønnen. Med Sigrid fikk Svein datteren Estrid Sveinsdatter som senere ble gift med Ulf Thorgilsson jarl (død 1026).

Svein selv var sannsynligvis realpolitiker nok til å holde seg til den religionen som passet den politikken han førte. Svein Tjugeskjegg var nok også oppmerksom på at straks erkebiskopen av Hamburg-Bremen fikk et fotfeste i Danmark ville den tyske keiseren Otto 3 ikke være langt unna. Hans slaviske naboer i sørøst, arvefiendene slaverne, var allerede underlagt det tyskromerske riket. Svein hadde ingen grunn til å ønske det samme for Danmark.

Etter år 1000 var Svein Tjugeskjegg den mektigste kongen i Norden. Sverige sørget for å holde avstand, og ekteskapet med Sigrid Storråde var å betrakte som en dynastisk fredsavtale med svenskene.
Norge var formelt underlagt Danmark og Eirik jarl stilte norske skip og hærmenn til danskekongens disposisjon.

Occupation:
Svein var ganske sikkert involvert i hærtokt mot England i årene 1003–1005, 1006–1007 og 1009–1012, som en følge av massakrene på Sankt Brictiusdagen (13.november) i England hvor alle danske og norrøne innbyggere i Nord-England ble mishandlet og drept i følge krønikene til John av Wallingford.
Det er antatt at Svein Tjugeskjegg hadde en personlig interesse i hærtoktene ettersom Gunhild, hans egen søster, var et av de mange ofrene. Massakrene var en storstilt etnisk utrenskning av dansker og norrøne bosettere i England og var initiert av den engelske kongen Ethelred den rådville.
Svein krevde Danegeld, en massiv skatt, og i 1013 ledet han personlig en mektig flåte av dansker og nordmenn i en storstilt invasjon av England. Sammen med ham var Eirik Håkonsson fra Norge.

Laud-krøniken slår fast at før august måned kom kong Svein med hans flåte til Sandwich. Han dro svært hurtig til munning av Humber i East Anglia og deretter oppover Trent til han kom til Gainsborough. Uhtred jarl og alle northumbrianere bøyde seg raskt for ham, noe alt folk i Lindsey gjorde, deretter alt folk i de fem Boroughene. Han tok gisler i hvert shire (område). Da han forsto at alt folk hadde underkastet seg for ham, krevde han at hans styrker skulle bli gitt proviant og hester. Han dro deretter sørover med mesteparten av invasjonsstyrken mens noen av dem, sammen med gislene ble sammen med hans sønn Knut. Etter han dro over Watling Street dro de opp til Oxford, og byborgerne bøyde seg for ham og ga ham gisler. Derfra red de mot Winchester, og folket der gjorde det samme, deretter østover til London.

I London synes Svein å ha blitt møtt med motstand. Innbyggerne hadde brent ned alle broene over elven Thames.

Sangen London Bridge is falling down som blir sunget den dag i dag er et minne om denne hendelsen.

Svein led store tap da han forsøkte å komme seg over elven, og han måtte trekke seg tilbake. Krøniken forteller at kong Svein dro derfra til Wallingford, over Thames til Bath, og ble værende der med hærstyrken. Ealdorman Aethelmaer kom og de vestlige thegnene (høvdingene) med ham. De bøyde seg alle for Svein og ga ham gisler.

London hadde klart å stå imot Sveins angrep, men byen var nå alene, isolert i en nasjon som hadde overgitt seg. Svein Tjugeskjegg ble akseptert som konge over England etter at Ethelred 2 flyktet til Normandie på slutten av 1013. Med tillatelse fra Witenagemot, rådet for de vise menn, underkastet London seg og overga byen til Svein, og han ble erklært som konge på første juledag.

Svein hadde sitt hovedkvarter i Gainsborough i Lincolnshire og begynte å organisere sitt store kongedømme. Han rakk å gjøre Eirik Håkonsson til jarl over Northumbria før han døde den 3.februar 1014 i grevskapet Lincoln etter å ha styrt England i kun 5 uker, angivelig av slag.

I Danmark ble han etterfulgt av sin eldste sønn Harald Sveinsson. Den danske hæren erklærte at hans yngre sønn Knut var den nye kongen av England, men både flåten og Knut selv dro tilbake til Danmark og Ethelred kom tilbake fra Normandie og gjenopptok styringen ved å erklære for sine landsmenn at alt var tilgitt. Sveins sønn, Knut, ble nødt til å gjenerobre England for å kunne fortsette farens verk.

Died:
Døde angivelig av slag. Han ble begravet i York Minster, men liket ble senere fraktet til Danmark og gravlagt i Roskilde Domkirke, hvor han i dag ligger på en ukjent plass sammen med faren Harald.

Svein married Swietoslawa av Polen after 0994. Swietoslawa (daughter of Mieszko av Polen, "Mieszko 1" and Dobrawa (Doubravka) av Böhmen) was born about 0967; died about 1014. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Notes:

Birth:
Navnet Swietoslawa er en rekonstruksjon som først og fremst er begrunnet på en inskripsjon i - Liber vitae of the New Minster and Hyde Abbey Winchester - om at en søster til sønnen Knut den store skal ha hett - Santslaue – den fulle inskripsjonen lyder:

Santslaue soror CNVTI regis nostri.

Antagelig var denne datteren trolig døpt etter sin mor. Hun er ellers kjent under navnet Gunhild eller Gunhilda, en mulig norrøn forenkling av hennes opprinnelige navn.

I henhold til islandske sagaer og andre kilder var Svein Tjugeskjeggs hustru den vestgøtiske stormannsdatteren Sigrid Storråde. Kildekritiske forskere på 1900-tallet argumentert for at Sigrid Storråde var en oppdiktet og fiktiv person og at begge navnene Gunhild og Sigrid har vært norrøne forenklinger av det polske navnet Swietoslawa.
I den senere tid har forskerne derimot hellet til begrunnelser at Sigrid Storråde var en faktisk historisk person, og at Svein Tjugeskjegg var gift 2 ganger, og at Adam av Bremen tok feil, og de islandske sagaene hadde rett. Sigrid Storråde var da gift med både Erik Seiersæl og Svein Tjugeskjegg, og Swietoslawa av Polen var kun gift med danskekongen.

Ifølge Snorre Sturlasson hadde Gunhild 2 søstre, Geira og Astrid. Geira ble i 982 gift med Olav Tryggvason som senere ble norsk konge (995-1000). Geira døde ifølge kildene barnløs i 985. Prinsesse Astrid ble gift med jomsvikingenes høvding Sigvalde jarl.

Notes:

Married:
Den polske prinsessens ekteskap med Svein Tjugeskjegg var ikke lykkelig og hun ble tvunget til å flytte tilbake til sitt hjemland hvor hun levde til hennes sønner tok makten i Danmark. Hun flyttet da altså ikke til Sverige og Olof Skötkonung var da ikke hennes sønn.

Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Abt 0940, Danmark; Konge.

Notes:

Occupation:
Regnes som Danmarks første reelle konge, som med utgangspunkt i en mindre region ble konge over hele det som i dag er Danmark. Harald Blåtann er også den første danske konge som trår ut av sagnkongenes halvmørke og blir en historisk figur dokumentert i skrift og stein.

Mens danskekongen måtte underkaste seg den tyskromerske keiseren i sør forsøkte han selv underkaste norske herskere i nord. Et maktmiddel i dette var å innføre kristendommen som offisiell religion.

Harald Blåtann ble konge i Danmark etter sin far, Gorm, 950-985. Regjerte sammen med Gorm den siste tiden faren levde, mest på den tyske keiser Otto 1's (Otto den store) nåde.

Harald Blåtann må ha vært en mektig konge. En konge med forståelse for strømningene i tiden. En konge med visjoner og drømmer, men også med klare ambisjoner om makt. Han samlet Danmark og hadde innflytelse i Norge, med klart overherredømme i Viken. Viken omfattet området rundt Oslofjorden, fra Grenland i vest til Bohuslän i øst. Bohuslän var den gang norsk område.

Kristendommen var på fremmarsj i Europa. Harald var selv blitt døpt rundt år 960. Misjon hadde det vært i Danmark så tidlig som før 800, men først nå var folket blitt mottagelig. Konge og folk gikk over til den kristne tro.

Harald var fra barnsben av oppdratt i den gamle hedenske Asa-troen, men skal i løpet av sin regjeringstid ha vaklet i denne troen. Trolig har han sett at kristendommen ga blant annet konger muligheter rikdom og makt. Kristendommen kunne ikke overvinnes. Ved at Harald bekjente sin kristne tro (omvendt av munken Poppo) skal også ha fratatt hans fiende keiser Otto 1. sin motivasjon for å innta Danmark.

Harald lot seg døpe ca.960 og bygde Trefoldighetskirken i Roskilde. Et keiserbrev er utstedt kort etter at kong Harald ble døpt.

En runesten i Vissing kirke gir viktige opplysninger om Harald som ikke kjennes fra andre kilder:

Denne innstrift forteller at Harald var gift med venderkongen Mistivojs datter, og at han har hatt sin svigermor boende ikke langt fra Jelling.

Harald var forøvrig gift flere ganger.

Adam av Bremen nevner at da kongen ble kristnet, gjorde hans dronning Gunhild det også.

Saxo nevner kun at Harald hadde vært gift med Gyrid, en søster til Styrbjørn, hun kjennes imidlertid ikke fra andre kilder.

Som hans barn nevnes Svend Tjugeskjegg hvis kristne navn var Otto, oppkalt etter den tyske keiser, Håkon som anla en koloni i Semland, datteren Tyra som først ble gift med Styrbjørn og senere med Olav Trygvesson, og til sist datteren Gunhild som ble gift i England.

Mogens Bugge oppgir i at Harald var gift med Gyrid Olavsdatter som døde ca.987. Hun var datter til Olav Björnsson, bror til kong Erik 7. Segersäll.

Dansk Biografisk Leksikon og Bent og Vidar Billing Hansen i oppgir at han først var gift med Gunhild og annen gang med Tove Mistivojsdatter.

De sikre opplysninger om Harald er ikke mange. Han nevnes første gang i 936, da erkebiskop Unni av Bremen gjorde en misjonsreise til Norden, og takket være Harald fikk adgang til å predike evangeliet på de danske øyer. Ved dette tidspunkt levde ennå kong Gorm, men ved hans død tok Harald riket i arv.

Hvorvidt han spilte en rolle ved fordrivelsen av den svenske fyrsteslekt fra Sønderjylland ca.940 vet man ikke.
Likeledes er det uklart hvordan forholdet mellom Harald og den tyske keisermakt formet seg i de nærmest følgende år. Muligens gjorde man fra tysk side gjeldende krav på overhøyhet over Danmark basert på den seier som kong Henrik i 934 vant over Gnupa.

Når det i 948 nevnes bisper i Slesvig, Ribe og Århus, byer som var underlagt Bremen, kan innvielsen av disse neppe ha funnet sted uten den tyske keisers medvirkning. Av et brev utstedt av Otto 1. den 26.juni 965, fremgår da også at han har følt seg berettiget til å gi de danske bispedømmenes kirker immunitet. Likevel savner vi ethvert vitnesbyrd om at kong Harald skulle ha følt seg som en avhengig fyrste, som måtte utrede skatt, stille mannskap til keiserens disposisjon osv.

Otto 1. dør i mai 973 og sønnen Otto 2. overtar som keiser av det tysk-romerske riket.

Otto 2. hadde ambisjoner og ville vise sin politiske og militære makt, og innfører en aggressiv utenrikspolitikk. Otto 2. angrep og ødela Danevirke 974 og bygde en borg på Eiderøya.

Harald angrep og ødela borgen 983 og erobret landet ved Hedeby og ble kvitt det tyske åk. Bygde Jomsborg ved Odermunningen til forsvar mot venderne. Innsatte lendmenn i Norge til forsvar mot Gunnhildsønnene; Harald Grenske i Viken og Håkon jarl vest- og nordafjells.

Omkring 975-981 oppførte Harald flere (minst 6) forsvarsverk rundt omkring i Danamrk, såkalte ringborger, inspirert av de nederlandske ringvollanlegg:

Aggersborg, Fyrkat, Trelleborg i Skåne, Nonnebakken og Vallø.

Disse ble forlatt og farsvant trolig en 10 års tid senere. Keiser Otto 2. døde i 983 under et felttog i Italia, og hans arving var da kun 3 år gammel. Den tyske trussel forsvant dermed og dermed også behovet for ringborgene.

Harald lot gjøre den største av Jellingesteinene, 2,43 meter, til minne om sin far Gorm trolig i år 963, i den lille byen Jelling, midt på Jylland. Innskriften er datert til vikingtid, Jelling, og er risset på en sten av granit, og lyder:

: haraltr : kunukR : baþ : kaurua
kubl : þausi : aft : kurm faþur sin
auk aft : þourui : muþur : sina : sa
haraltr (:) ias : soR * uan * tanmaurk
ala * auk nuruiak (*) auk t(a)ni (k)(a)(r)(þ)(i) kristno

Norrønt:
Haraldr konungr bað gera
kuml þessi ept Gorm, fôður sinn,
ok ept Þyrvé, móður sína, sá
Haraldr er sér vann Danmôrk
alla ok Norveg ok dani gerði kristna.

Oversettelse:
Harald konge bød gøre disse kumler (gravminner) efter Gorm sin fader og Thyra sin moder, den Harald der vandt sig hele Danmark og Norge og gjorde danerne kristne.

Jelling var hovedsetet for danekongene i sen vikingtid. Minner etter disse ligger fortsatt og er noen av Danmarks mest kjente fortidsminner. Jelling kirke ligger midt mellom 2 store gravhauger, Danmarks største, hver på over 70 meter i diameter og opp mot 10 meter høye. Sagnet sier at det er Danmarks grunnleggere og første kongepar – Kong Gorm og dronning Tyra – som ligger begravet her i hver sin haug.

Ved kirken står 2 berømte runesteiner, de såkalte Jellingsteinene. Disse står ikke på opprinnelige sted, men de er sikkert opprinnelig reist i tilknytning til kongesetet.

Kong Gorms stein er minst, og eldst. Den er reist av kong Gorm den gamle til minne om hans dronning.

Kong Haralds stein går i faglitteraturen ofte bare under navnet Jellingsteinen. Innskriften er spesiell, i og med at den er ordnet i vannrette linjer, ikke loddrette som er det vanlige ved runesteiner.

Fortidsminnene ved Jelling; gravhaugene, kirken og runesteinene er nå oppført på UNESCOs liste over verdens kulturminner.

Died:
Harald Blåtann døde den 1.november i enten 985, eller året etter, drept i strid mot sin sønn Svein.

Flere kilder hevder at hans sønn erobret kongsmakten fra sin gamle far. En av kildene er Snorre Sturlasson i Heimskringla som skriver:

Svein, sønn til kong Harald, han som siden ble kalt Tjugeskjegg, krevde rike av far sin kong Harald; men det gikk da som før, at kong Harald ville ikke dele Danevelde i to, og ville ikke gi ham noe rike. Da fikk Svein seg hærskip og sa at han ville i viking. Men da hele flåten hans var kommet sammen, og dessuten Palna-Toke av jomsvikingene hadde kommet for å hjelpe ham, så seilte Svein til Sjælland og inn i Isefjorden. Der lå kong Harald, far hans, med skipene sine, han skulle ut i leidang. Svein la til strid med ham, det ble et stort slag; folk gikk over til kong Harald, så Svein kom til å kjempe mot overmakt, og så flyktet han. Kong Harald fikk sår der, og døde av dem. Deretter ble Svein tatt til konge over Danmark.

Harald Blåtann ble begravet i Roskilde domkirke, hvor hans levninger fortsatt hviler, bygget inn i en av pilarene i koret.

Harald married Gunnhild. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Abt 0960, Polen; Hertug.

Notes:

Birth:
There is no certain information on Mieszko 1's life before he took control over his lands. Only the Lesser Poland Chronicle gives the date of his birth as somewhere between the years 920-931 (depending on the version of the manuscript), however, modern researchers don't recognize the Chronicle as a reliable source. Several historians on the basis of their investigations postulated the date of Mieszko 1's birth to have been between 922-945; the activity of the Duke in his final years of life puts the date of his birth closer to the latter year.

Occupation:
A member of the Piast dynasty, he was son of Siemomysl; grandchild of Lestek; father of Boleslaw 1 the Brave, the first crowned King of Poland; likely father of Swietoslawa (Sigrid), a Nordic Queen; and grandfather of her son, Cnut the Great.
The first historical ruler of Poland, Mieszko 1 is considered the de facto creator of the Polish state. He continued the policy of both his father and grandfather, who were rulers of the pagan tribes located in the area of present Greater Poland. Either through alliances or by use of military force, Mieszko extended the ongoing conquests and early in his reign subordinated Kuyavia and probably Gdansk Pomerania and Masovia. For most of his reign, Mieszko 1 was involved in warfare for the control of Western Pomerania, eventually conquering it up to the vicinity of the lower Oder. During the last years of his life he fought the Bohemian state, winning Silesia and probably Lesser Poland.
Mieszko 1's marriage in 965 to the Czech Premyslid princess Dobrawa and his baptism in 966 put him and his country in the cultural sphere of Western Christianity. Apart from the great conquests accomplished during his reign (which proved to be fundamental for the future of Poland), Mieszko 1 was renowned for his internal reforms, aimed at expanding and improving the so-called war monarchy system.
According to existing sources, Mieszko 1 was a wise politician, a talented military leader and charismatic ruler. He successfully used diplomacy, concluding an alliance with Bohemia first, and then with Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire. In foreign policy, he placed the interests of his country foremost, even entering into agreements with former enemies. On his death, he left to his sons a country of greatly expanded territory, with a well-established position in Europe.
Mieszko 1 also enigmatically appeared as "Dagome" in a papal document dating to about 1085, called Dagome iudex, which mentions a gift or dedication of Mieszko's land to the Pope (the act took place almost a hundred years earlier).

There are three major theories concerning the origin and meaning of Mieszko 1's name. The most popular theory, proposed by Jan Dlugosz, explains that Mieszko is a diminutive of Mieczyslaw, a combination of two elements or lexemes: Miecz meaning sword and Slaw meaning famous. Today, this theory is rejected by the majority of Polish historians, who consider the name Mieczyslaw to have been invented by Dlugosz to explain the origin of the name Mieszko. Today, we know that ancient Slavs never formed their names using either animal names or weapon names. Ancient Slavic names were abstract in nature. The same explanation rules out another theory about the origin of the name Mieszko, which links the name with the Polish word mis/misko meaning bear, as no animal names were used to form honorable Polish names among Polish nobility.
The second most popular theory about the origin and sense of Mieszko's name can be traced to the very old legend, firstly described by Gallus Anonymus, according to which Mesco (the Latinized form used by the earliest sources) was blind during his first seven years of life. The chronicler related this story (a typical medieval allegory) as follows:
At that time (after Mieszko recovered his eyesight) Prince Siemomysl urgently asked the elderly people of his country whether his son's blindness conveyed some miraculous meaning. They explained that this blindness meant that Poland was blind back then, but from now was going to be illuminated by Mieszko and elevated over the neighboring nations.
This interpretation was a clear reference to the later baptism of the Duke:
Poland was indeed blind before, knowing nothing about the true God or the principles of the Catholic faith, but thanks to the enlightenment of Mieszko the country also had become enlightened, because when he adopted the faith, the Polish nation was saved from death and destruction.
In addition, it is known that the Slavic word "mzec" can be interpreted as ?having his eyes closed? or ?be blind?. Yet again, today it is almost certain that this legend was used as a metaphor, in allusion to the old Slavic pagan ceremony known as the "postrzyzyny": During that ceremony hair cutting was performed to every boy at the age of seven. In that symbolic rite a child became a man. That explains that Mieszko wasn't blind in fact. He was blind only metaphorically. Besides his son?s name was also Mieszko and it is hard to believe that he was also blind. In addition, as we know today ancient Slavs used only abstract names among nobility.
The third theory links the name of Mieszko with his other name, Dagome, as it appeared in the document called Dagome iudex. We know this document only from a copy prepared by an anonymous monk who was not familiar with Polish language or Polish names. It is possible that while copying the document he made a mistake and wrote down Dagome instead of Dagomer or even Dagomir. The name Dagomir is used to this day and its construction is similar to other Polish names like for example: Wladimir/Wlodzimierz or Casimir/Kazimierz. The evolution of the ?-mir? element to ?-mierz? is due to two separate developments: first, the regular change of the vowel "i" to "(i)e" before "r", and second, the modification of the nominative case by the vocative for certain names (hence, Kazimierz replaced Kazimier based on the vocative Kazimierze). It is debatable whether the name Mieszko is a nickname formed from the second part of the name *Dago-mierz, since the merger in pronunciation of "sz" with the devoiced "rz" which would appear in this position is quite recent. The word mir can be translated as peace. However, some historians believe that the word "Dagome" is a melding of two names: the Christian "Dago," for "Dagobert" (Mieszko's hypothetical baptismal name), and the Slavic "Me," for "Mieszko." The Latin word "iudex" ("judge") would be used in the meaning of "prince." Another interpretation is that "Dagome iudex" is a corruption of "Ego Mesco dux" ("I, Prince Mieszko").

Mieszko 1 took over the tribal rule after his father's death ca. 950?960, probably closer to the latter date. Due to the lack of sources it is not possible to determine exactly which lands he inherited. Certainly among them were the areas inhabited by the Polans and Goplans, as well as the Sieradz-Leczyca lands and Kuyavia. It is possible that this state included also Masovia and Gdansk Pomerania. Soon the new ruler had faced the task of integrating the relatively large, ethnically and culturally heterogeneous territory. Although the residents of areas controlled by Mieszko spoke mostly one language, had similar beliefs and reached a similar level of economic and general development, they were socially connected primarily by tribal structures. It appears that the elders cooperating with the Duke first felt the need for super-tribal unity, as expansion allowed them to broaden their influence.
Mieszko and his people were described around 966 by Abraham ben Jacob, a Sephardi Jewish traveller, who at that time visited the Prague court of Duke Boleslav 1 the Cruel. Abraham presented Mieszko 1 as one of the four Slavic "kings", reigning over a vast "northern" area, with a highly regarded and substantial military force at his disposal. More precise contemporary records regarding Mieszko were compiled by Widukind of Corvey, and half a century later, by Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg.
By the time Mieszko 1 took over from his father, the Polans' tribal federation of Greater Poland had for some time been actively expanding. Continuing this process, perhaps in the first years of Mieszko's reign, if it had not been done already by his father, Mieszko 1 conquered Masovia. Likely also during that period or earlier, at least partially Gdansk Pomerania was obtained. Mieszko's interests were then concentrated mainly on areas occupied by the eastern (near the Oder River) branches of the Polabian Slavs; some of them became soon subordinated by him. As Widukind of Corvey wrote, Mieszko ruled over the tribe called the Licicaviki, now commonly identified with the Polabian Lubusz Land. Having the control over those more western (in respect to the original homeland of the Polans) tribes, Mieszko had entered the German sphere of influence.
In 963 the German Margrave Gero conquered territories occupied by the Polabian Lusatian and Slupian tribes, and as a result came into direct contact with the Polish state. At the same time (about 960) Mieszko I began his expansion against the Velunzani and Lutici tribes. The war was recorded by the chronicler Abraham ben Jacob. According to him, Mieszko 1 had fought against the Weltaba tribe, commonly identified with the Veleti. Wichmann the Younger, a Saxon nobleman who was then a leader of a band of Polabian Slavs, defeated Mieszko twice, and around 963 a brother of Mieszko, whose name is unknown, was killed in the fighting. The frontiers at the mouth of the Oder River were also desired by the German margraves. In addition, the Veleti Bohemia, which at that time possessed Silesia and Lesser Poland regions, constituted a danger for the young state of the Polans.

Probably in 964 Mieszko began negotiations with the Bohemian ruler Boleslav I the Cruel. As a result, in 965 Mieszko I married his daughter Dobrawa (also named Dobrava, Doubravka or Dabr?wka). The initiative of the Polish-Bohemian_Alliance alliance is likely to have come from the Polish ruler. It is probable that the marriage was officially arranged in February 965.
The next step was the baptism of Mieszko. There are different hypotheses concerning this event. Most often it is assumed that it was a political decision, intended to bring Mieszko's state closer to the Czechs and to facilitate his activities in the Polabian Slavs area. At the same time, the baptism decreased the likelihood of future attacks by German margraves and deprived them of the opportunity to attempt Christianization of Mieszko's lands by force. An additional reason could be Mieszko's desire to remove from power the influential pagan priest class, who may have been blocking his efforts to establish a more centralized rule.
A different hypothesis is linked with the above-mentioned acceptance of the veracity of Gero's invasion of Poland. According to it, it was the attack of the Margrave that forced the Christianization, which was to be an act of subordination to the Emperor, done without the mediation of the Pope.
Still other motives were responsible according to Gallus Anonymus, who claimed that it was the Bohemian Princess Dobrawa who convinced her husband to change his religion. Likewise chronicler Thietmar attributes Mieszko's conversion to Dobrawa's influence. There are no reasons to negate Dobrawa's role in Mieszko's acceptance of Christianity; however crediting rulers' wives with positive influence over their husbands' actions was a common convention at that time.

It is generally recognized that the baptism of Mieszko I took place in 966. The place is unknown; it could have had happened in any of the cities of the Empire (possibly Regensburg), but also in one of the Polish towns like Gniezno or Ostr?w Lednicki. The belief that the baptism was accomplished through the Czechs in order to avoid the dependence on Germany and the German Church is incorrect, because Bohemia would not have its own church organization until 973. At the time of the baptism of Mieszko the existing Bohemian church establishment was a part of the Regensburg diocese. Thus, if the Polish ruler accepted the baptism through Prague's mediation, it had to be sanctioned in Regensburg. However, the religious vocabulary (words like baptism, sermon, prayer, church, apostle, bishop or confirmation) were adopted from the Czech language and had to come from Dobrawa's entourage and the church elements that arrived with her. Perhaps with her also came the first Polish bishop, Jordan. It could be that the reason for the Czech preference of Mieszko was the existence in Bohemia of a mission which followed the precepts of the Byzantine Greek brothers and later saints Cyril and Methodius, who developed and performed the liturgy in the Slavic rite, more readily understood by Mieszko and his subjects. The Slavic rite church branch had survived in Bohemia for another hundred years after Mieszko's baptism.

Through the adoption of Christianity Mieszko I included his Polish state in the community European western Latin rite Christian states. The Holy Roman Empire or any other Christian country, in theory, had no right to attack Poland under the pretext of spreading Christianity or for other unjust reasons, because the Duke of the Polans had become a member of the Christian circle.
The baptism also started the spread of the Latin culture into Poland, with the first literate and educated churchmen-advisers joining Mieszko's court. The missionary bishopric started by Jordan in 968 used the Latin liturgy and was directly subordinate to the Papacy. Churches were being built at Gniezno, Poznan, Ostr?w Lednicki and elsewhere. The existence of the missionary diocese emphasized the individuality and independence of the Polish state.
At the time of the reign of Mieszko there was no single place serving as the capital, instead he built several palatiums around his country. The most important locations were Poznan (Ostr?w Tumski), Gniezno and Ostr?w Lednicki. The latter was a ring-fort some 500 meters in circumference, containing the duke's residence, a stone palace, the country's first monumental architecture.
The Christianization had also led to political changes. The emergent power structures were independent of the traditional tribal elders and limited their authority. Clergy who arrived in the country contributed to the development of education and culture, and of the state administration and diplomacy. At the end of Mieszko's reign (ca. 990) Poland began to pay tribute to the pope (Peter's Pence).
However, the conversion of the Polish population into Christianity was a long-term process and was not be completed during the reign of Mieszko I. The duke probably had to deal with rebellions led by the old pagan priest caste. In some villages, the old Slavic beliefs and customs were continued until the 16th century.

After the normalization of relations with the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia, Mieszko I returned to his plans of conquest of the more western part of Pomerania. On 21 September 967 the Polish-Bohemian troops prevailed in the decisive battle against the Wolinians led by Wichmann the Younger, which gave Mieszko the control over the mouth of the Odra River. The German margraves had not opposed Mieszko's activities in Pomerania, perhaps even supported them; the death of the rebellious Wichmann, who succumbed to his wounds soon after the battle, may have been in line with their interests. A telling incident took place after the battle, a testimony to Mieszko's high standing among the Empire's dignitaries, just one year after his baptism: Widukind of Corvey reported that the dying Wichmann asked Mieszko to hand over Wichmann's weapons to Emperor Otto I, to whom Wichmann was related. For Mieszko the victory had to be a satisfying experience, especially in light of his past defeats inflicted by Wichmann.
The exact result of Mieszko's fighting in Western Pomerania is not known. Subsequent loss of the region by Mieszko's son Boleslaw Chrobry suggests that the conquest was difficult and the hold over that territory rather tenuous. In one version of the legend of St. Wojciech it is written that Mieszko I had his daughter[30] married to a Pomeranian prince, who previously voluntarily was washed with the holy water of the baptism in Poland. The above information, as well as the fact that Boleslaw lost Western Pomerania, suggest that the region was not truly incorporated into the Polish state, but only became a fief. This conjecture seems to be confirmed in the introduction of the first volume of the chronicles of Gallus Anonymus concerning the Pomeranians: Although often the leaders of the forces defeated by the Polish duke sought salvation in baptism, as soon as they regained their strength, they repudiated the Christian faith and started the war against Christians anew.

In 972 Poland suffered the attack of Odo 1, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark. According to the chronicles of Thietmar, this attack was an arbitrary action, without the consent of the Emperor:
Meanwhile, the noble Margrave Hodo, having collected his army attacked Mieszko, who has been faithfully paying tribute to the Emperor (for the lands) up the Warta river.
See also: Battle of Cedynia
There are different hypotheses concerning the reasons for this invasion. Possibly Margrave Odo wanted to stop the growing power of the Polish state. Very likely Odo wanted to protect the Wolinian state, which he considered his zone of influence, from the Polish take-over. Possibly the Wolinians themselves called the Margrave and asked his help. In any event, Odo's forces moved in and on 24 June 972 twice engaged Mieszko's army at the village of Cidini, commonly identified with Cedynia. At first, the Margrave defeated Mieszko's forces; subsequently the Duke's brother Czcibor defeated the Germans in the decisive stage, inflicting great losses among their troops. It may be that Mieszko intentionally staged the retreat, which was followed by a surprise attack on the flank of the German pursuing troops. After this battle, Mieszko and Odo were called to the Imperial Diet in Quedlinburg in 973 to explain and justify their conduct. The exact judgment of the Emperor is unknown, but it's certain that the sentence wasn't carried out because he died a few weeks after the Diet. It is commonly assumed that the sentence was unfavorable to the Polish ruler. Some sources indicate that Mieszko was not present in Quedlinburg during the gathering; instead, he had to sent his son Boleslaw as a hostage.
Mieszko's conflict with Odo I was a surprising event because, according to Thietmar, Mieszko respected the Margrave highly. Thietmar wrote the following:
Mieszko would never wear his outdoor garment in a house where Odo was present, or remain seated after Odo had gotten up.
It is believed that in practical terms the victory at Cedynia sealed Western Pomerania's fate as Mieszko' dependency.

According to archaeological research, during the 970s the Sandomierz region and the Przemysl area inhabited by the Lendians became incorporated into the Polish state. None of it is certain for the lack of written sources. It is possible that especially the Przemysl area, inhibated by the Lendians and the White Croats, belonged at that time to Bohemia, which supposedly extended up to the Bug River and Styr River. The Primary Chronicle states that in 981 Vladimir of the Rurik Dynasty went towards the Lachy and took their towns: Przemysl, Czerwien and other strongholds (...). The exact interpretation of this passage is uncertain, because the Ruthenian word "Lachy" meant both the Poles in general and the southeastern Lendians tribe. Mieszko's conquest of Sandomierz could also have taken place later, together with the take-over of the Vistulans (western and central Lesser Poland).
Some historians suggest that the regions of Sandomierz, Lublin and Czerwien (western Red Ruthenia) were indeed annexed by Mieszko's state in the 970s, as lands valuable for trade reasons and as a starting point for a future attack against what was to become Lesser Poland, then in the hands of Bohemia. Sandomierz under this scenario was the central hub of the area, with Czerwien, Przemysl and Chelm assuming the function of defensive borderland strongholds.

After the death of Emperor Otto 1 in 973 Mieszko, like his brother-in-law, Duke Boleslav 2 of Bohemia, joined the German opposition in support of the attempted imperial succession of Henry 2, Duke of Bavaria. Mieszko may have been motivated by revenge because of the (presumably) negative verdict of the Quedlinburg summit, but may be more importantly he wanted more favorable terms for his cooperation with Germany. The participation of Mieszko in the conspiracy against Otto 2 was documented in only one source, the chronicles of the monastery in Altaich in its entry for the year 974. The Duke of Bavaria was defeated, and Emperor Otto 2 regained full power. Shortly afterwards the young emperor waged a retaliatory expedition against Bohemia, forcing in 978 Duke Boleslav into submission.

In 977 Mieszko's wife, Dobrawa, died. At first there were no apparent repercussions, as the Polish ruler had maintained his alliance with Bohemia.
In 979 Otto 2 supposedly attacked Poland. Mention of this event can be found in the Chronicle of the Bishops of Cambrai from the 11th century. The effects of this expedition are unknown, but it is suspected that the Emperor did not succeed. Due to bad weather, the Emperor was back at the border of Thuringia and Saxony in December of that year. It is uncertain whether the invasion actually took place. The chronicle only stated that it was an expedition "against the Slavs". Archaeological discoveries appear to support the thesis of Otto 2's invasion. In the last quarter of the 10th century there had been a radical expansion of the fortifications at Gniezno and Ostr?w Lednicki, which may be associated with the Polish-German war, or the expectation of such. The duration of the expedition suggests that it may have reached as far east as the vicinity of Poznan.

The Polish-German agreement was concluded in the spring or possibly summer of 980, because in November of that year Otto II left his country and went to Italy. It appears that during this time Mieszko I married Oda, daughter of Dietrich of Haldensleben, Margrave of the Northern March, after abducting her from the monastery of Kalbe.[46] Chronicler Thietmar described the event as follows:
When Boleslaw's mother died his father married, without permission from the Church, a nun from the monastery in Kalbe, daughter of Margrave Dietrich. Oda was her name and her guilt was great. For she scorned her vows to God, and gave preference to the man of war before him (...). But because of the concern for the well-being of the homeland and the necessity to secure its peace, the event caused no break of relations, instead a proper way was found to restore concord. For thanks to Oda the legion of followers of Christ became augmented, many prisoners returned to their country, the shackled had their chains taken off, and the gates of prisons were opened for the trespassers.
Although Thietmar made no mention of warfare that possibly took place on this occasion, the information on the return of the accord, acting for the good of the country and release of prisoners indicate that a conflict actually did occur.[48]
The marriage with Oda considerably affected the position and prestige of Mieszko, who entered the world of Saxon aristocracy. As a son-in-law of Margrave Dietrich, he gained an ally in one of the most influential politicians of the Holy Roman Empire. As the Margrave was a distant relative of the Emperor, Mieszko became a member of the circle connected to the imperial ruling house.

Probably in the early 980s Mieszko allied his country with Sweden against Denmark. The alliance was sealed with the marriage of Mieszko's daughter Swietoslawa with the Swedish king Erik. The content of the treaty is known from the not entirely reliable, but originating directly from the Danish court tradition account given by Adam of Bremen. In this text, probably as a result of confusion, he gives instead of Mieszko's name the name of his son Boleslaw:
The King of the Swedes, Erik, entered into an alliance with the very powerful King of the Polans, Boleslaw. Boleslaw gave Erik his daughter or sister. Because of this cooperation the Danes were routed by the Slaves and the Swedes.
Mieszko decided on the alliance with Sweden probably in order to help protect his possessions in Pomerania from the Danish King Harald I and his son Sweyn. They may have acted in cooperation with the Wolinian autonomous entity. The Danish were defeated ca. 991 and their ruler was expelled. The dynastic alliance with Sweden had probably affected the equipment and composition of Mieszko's troops. Perhaps at that time the Varangian warriors were recruited; their presence is indicated by archaeological excavations in the vicinity of Poznan.

In 982 Emperor Otto 2 suffered a disastrous defeat against the Saracens in Italy. The resulting weakness of the imperial power was exploited by the Lutici, who initiated a great uprising of the Polabian Slavs in 983. The German authority in the area ceased to exist and the Polabian tribes began to threaten the Empire. The death of Otto 2 at the end of that year contributed further to the unrest. Ultimately the Lutici and the Obotrites were able to liberate themselves from the German rule for the next two centuries.
The Emperor left a minor successor, Otto 3. The right to care for him and the regency powers were claimed by Henry 2 of Bavaria. Like in 973, Mieszko and the Czech duke Boleslav II took the side of the Bavarian duke. This fact is confirmed in the chronicle of Thietmar:
There arrived (at the Diet of Quedlinburg) also, among many other princes: Mieszko, Msciwoj and Boleslav and promised to support him under oath as the king and ruler.
In 984 the Czechs took over Meissen, but in the same year Henry 2 gave up his pretension to the German throne.
The role played by Mieszko 1 in the subsequent struggles is unclear because the contemporary sources are scarce and not in agreement. Probably in 985 the Polish ruler ended his support for the Bavarian duke and moved to the side of the Emperor. It is believed that Mieszko's motivation was the threat posed to his interests by the Polabian Slavs uprising. The upheaval was a problem for both Poland and Germany, but not for Bohemia. In the Chronicle of Hildesheim, in the entry for the year 985 it is noted that Mieszko came to help the Saxons in their fight against some Slavic forces, presumably the Polabians.
One year later, the Polish ruler had a personal meeting with the Emperor, an event mentioned in the Annals of Hersfeld:
Otto the boy-king ravaged Bohemia, but received Mieszko who arrived with gifts.
According to Thietmar and other contemporary chronicles the gift given by Mieszko to the Emperor was a camel. The meeting consolidated the Polish-German alliance, with Mieszko joining Otto's expedition against a Slavic land, which together they wholly devastated (...) with fire and tremendous depopulation. It is not clear which Slavic territory was invaded. Perhaps another raid against the Polabians took place. But there are indications that it was an expedition against the Czechs, Mieszko's first against his southern neighbors. Possibly on this occasion the Duke of the Polans accomplished the most significant expansion of his state, the take-over of Lesser Poland.
The Thietmar's relation however raises doubts as to whether the joined military operation actually happened. The chronicler claims that a settlement was then concluded between the Emperor and the Bohemian ruler Boleslav 2 the Pious, which is not mentioned in any other source and is contrary to the realities of the political situation at that time.
Another debatable point is Thietmar's claim that Mieszko subordinated himself to the King. Most historians believe that it was only a matter of recognition of Otto's royal authority. Some suggest that a fealty relationship could in fact be involved.

Whether or not the German-Polish invasion of Bohemia actually happened, the friendly relations between the Czechs and the Poles came to an end. Bohemia resumed its earlier alliance with the Lutici, which caused in 990 a war with Mieszko, who was supported by Empress Theophanu. Duke Boleslav 2 was probably the first one to attack. As a result of the conflict Silesia was taken over by Poland. However, the annexation of Silesia possibly took place around 985, because during this year the major Piast strongholds in Wroclaw, Opole and Glog?w were already being built.
The issue of the incorporation of Lesser Poland is also not completely resolved. Possibly Mieszko took the region before 990, which is indicated by the vague remark of Thietmar, who wrote of a country taken by Mieszko from Boleslav. In light of this theory, the conquest of Lesser Poland could be a reason for the war, or its first stage. Many historians suggested that the Czech rule over Lesser Poland was only nominal and likely limited to the indirect control of Krak?w and perhaps a few other important centers. This theory is based on the lack of archaeological discoveries, which would indicate major building investments undertaken by the Bohemian state.
Lesser Poland supposedly after its incorporation had become the partition of the country assigned to Mieszko's oldest son, Boleslaw, which is indirectly indicated in the chronicle of Thietmar.
Some historians, on the basis of the chronicle of Cosmas of Prague, believe that the conquest of the lands around the lower Vistula River took place after Mieszko's death, specifically in 999. There is also a theory according to which during this transition period Lesser Poland was governed by Boleslaw Chrobry, whose authority was granted to him by the Bohemian duke.

At the end of his life (ca. 991-92), Mieszko 1, together with his wife Oda and their sons, issued a document called Dagome iudex, where the Polish ruler placed his lands under the protection of the Pope and described their borders. Only a later imprecise summary of the document has been preserved.
There are two main theories concerning reasons behind the issuing of Dagome iudex:
According to the first theory the document was an effort to transform the existing missionary bishopric into a regular organization of the Catholic Church, that would cover all of Mieszko's state. This understanding implies that the arrangement led to payment by Poland of Peter's Pence.
The second theory assumes that the document was created in order to protect the interests of Mieszko's second wife Oda and their sons (who were named in the document) after Mieszko's death. Boleslaw, Mieszko's eldest son, whose mother was Dobrawa, was not named in the document. However, one of Mieszko's and Oda's sons, Swietopelk, also was not mentioned.
Dagome iudex is of capital importance for Polish history because it gives a general description of the Polish state's geographical location at the end of Mieszko's reign.

During his last years of life Mieszko remained loyal to the alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. In 991 he arrived at a gathering in Quedlinburg, where he participated in the customary exchange of gifts with Otto 3 and Empress Theophanu. In the same year he took part in a joint expedition with the young king to Brandenburg.
Mieszko died on 25 May 992. Sources give no reasons to believe that his death occurred from causes other than natural. According to Thietmar the Polish ruler died in an old age, overcame with fever. Probably he was buried in the Poznan Cathedral. The remains of the first historical ruler of Poland have never been found and the place of his burial is not known with certainty. In 1836?1837 a cenotaph was built for Mieszko I and his successor Boleslaw 1 the Brave in the Golden Chapel (Polish: Zlota Kaplica) at the Poznan Cathedral, where the damaged remains found in the 14th century tomb of Boleslaw were placed.
According to Thietmar Mieszko I divided his state before his death among a number of princes. They were probably his sons: Boleslaw I the Brave, Mieszko and Lambert.
In 1999 the archeologist Hanna K?cka-Krenz located what's left of Mieszko's palace-chapel complex in Poznan.

According to Gallus Anonymus, before becoming a Christian Mieszko had seven pagan wives, whom he had to get rid of as he married Dobrawa. Nothing is known for sure of any children from these relationships. Some sources show the possibility that Adelajda or Adleta (b. 950/60 ? d. aft. 997), first wife of Duke Mih?ly of Gran (Esztergom) and then wife of her brother-in-law G?za, Grand Prince of the Magyars, was Mieszko's daughter (born from a chronological point of view from one of the pagan wives) and not his sister as is given in the majority of web sources.

In 965, before his baptism, Mieszko married Dobrawa (b. 940/45 ? d. 977), daughter of Boleslav I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia. They had two children:
1.Boleslaw I the Brave (Chrobry) (b. 967 ? d. 17 June 1025).
2.Swietoslawa (Sigrid) (b. 968/72 ? d. ca. 1016), married first to Eric the Victorious, King of Sweden and later to Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark. From her second marriage, she probably was the mother of Cnut the Great, King of Denmark, Norway and England.

According to one hypothesis there was another daughter of Mieszko, married to a Pomeranian Slavic Prince; she could be a daughter of Dobrawa or of one of the previous pagan wives. Also, a theory exists (apparently based on Thietmar and supported by Oswald Balzer in 1895) that Vladivoj, who ruled as Duke of Bohemia in 1002?1003, was a son of Mieszko and Dobrawa. Although most modern historians reject this claim, Bohemian historiography supported the Piast parentage of Vladivoj.

In 978/79 Mieszko I married Oda (b. 955/60 ? d. 1023), daughter of Dietrich of Haldensleben, Margrave of the Northern March. She was abducted by her future husband from the monastery of Kalbe. They had three sons:
1.Mieszko (b. ca. 979 ? d. aft. 992/95).
2.Swietopelk (b. ca. 980 ? d. bef. 991?).
3.Lambert (b. ca. 981 ? d. aft. 992/95).

After a struggle for power between Boleslaw 1 and Oda with her minor sons (Boleslaw's half-brothers), the eldest son of Mieszko 1 took control over all of his father's state and expelled his stepmother and her sons from Poland.

Died:
Sources give no reasons to believe that his death occurred from causes other than natural. According to Thietmar the Polish ruler died in an old age, overcame with fever. Probably he was buried in the Poznan Cathedral.

Mieszko married Dobrawa (Doubravka) av Böhmen between 0965 and 0966. Dobrawa (daughter of Boleslav (Boleslaus) av Böhmen, "Boleslav 1" and Biagota) was born between 0940 and 0945 in Böhmen, Tsjekkia; died about 0977. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Notes:

Birth:
Dobrawa (Dabrówka) (Czech: Doubravka, Polish: Dobrawa) var en bøhmisk (tsjekkisk) prinsesse. Hun tilhørte dynastiet Premislovci og var datter av hertug Boleslav 1 av Böhmen og Adiva av England, som var datter av kong Edvard den eldre.

Dobrawa's date of birth is not known. The only indication is communicated by the chronicler Cosmas of Prague, who stated that the Bohemian princess at the time of her marriage with Mieszko I was an old woman. The message is regarded as tendentious and of little reliability, and some researchers believe that the statement was made with malicious intent. It is possible that in the statement about Dobrawa's age, Cosmas was making a reference to the age difference between her and her sister Mlada. That would give him a basis for determining Dobrawa as old. It also found that Cosmas confuses Dobrawa with Mieszko 1's second wife Oda, who at the time of her marriage was around 19–25 years old, a relatively advanced age for a bride according to the customs of the Middle Ages. Some researchers have taken up speculative views, such as Jerzy Strzelczyk, who assumed that in the light of contemporary concepts and habits of marriage of that time (when as a rule marriages were contracted with teenage girls) is assumed that Dobrawa had passed her early youth, so, it's probable that she was in her late teens or twenties.

Died:
Dobrawa died in 977. In his study of 1888, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote that her tomb was discovered in Gniezno Cathedral. It was a simple stone marked with a cross. Purple robes and a weighty gold loincloth were the only objects found in her tomb.

A similar view of Dobrawa's burial place was expressed earlier, in 1843, by Edward Raczynski in his study Wspomnienia Wielkopolski to jest województw poznanskiego, kaliskiego i gnieznienskiego (Memories of the Greater Poland districts of Poznan, Kalisz and Gniezno). However, the burial place of the Bohemian princess is now considered to be unknown.

Dobrawa's death weakened the Polish-Bohemian alliance, which finally collapsed in the mid-980s.

Notes:

Married:
According to earlier sources, Dobrawa urged her husband Mieszko 1 of Poland to accept baptism in 966, the year after their marriage. Modern historians believe, however, that the change of religion by Mieszko was one of the points discussed in the Polish-Bohemian agreement concluded soon before his marriage with Dobrawa. Her role in his conversion is not considered now to be as important as it is often represented in medieval chronicles.

In the second half of 964 an alliance between Boleslav 1 the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia, and Mieszko 1 of Poland was concluded. In order to consolidate the agreement, in 965 Boleslav 1's daughter Dobrawa was married to Mieszko 1. There was a difference of religion between the spouses; she was a Christian, he was a pagan.

Two independent sources attribute Dobrawa's important role in the conversion to Christianity of Mieszko 1 and Poland. The first is the chronicles of Thietmar, who was born two years before the death of Dobrawa. He wrote that the Bohemian princess tried to persuade her husband to accept Christianity (even at the cost of breaking their marriage and with it the Polish-Bohemian Alliance). It the end, she finally obtained the conversion of Mieszko 1 and with him, of all Poland.
In turn, the 12th century chronicler Gallus Anonymus says that Dobrawa came to Poland surrounded by secular and religious dignitaries. She agreed to marry Mieszko I providing that he was baptized. The Polish ruler accepted, and only then was able to marry the Bohemian princess.
However, modern historians allege that the baptism of Mieszko I was dictated by political benefits and should not be attributed to any action of Dobrawa, who according to them had virtually no role in the conversion of her husband. They note that the conversion of Mieszko 1 thanks to Dobrawa formed part of the tradition of the Church which stressed the conversion of Pagan rulers through the influence of women.
On the other hand, literature doesn't refuse to give Dobrawa a significant role in the Christianization of the Poles. In her wedding procession, she arrived to Poland with Christian clergymen, among them possibly Jordan, the first Bishop of Poland (since 968).

Tradition attributes to Dobrawa the establishment of the Holy Trinity and St. Wit Churches in Gniezno and the Church of the Virgin Mary in Ostrow Tumski, Poznan.
Dobrawa's marriage cemented the alliance of Mieszko 1 with Bohemia, which continued even after her death. On 21 September 967 Mieszko 1 was assisted by Bohemians in the decisive Battle against the Volinians led by Wichmann the Younger.

When, after the death of Emperor Otto 1 in 973, a struggle for the supremacy in Germany began, both Dobrawa's husband and brother Boleslav II the Pious, Duke of Bohemia, supported the same candidate for the German throne, Duke Henry 2 of Bavaria.

The marriage of Mieszko 1 and Dobrawa produced 3 children:

1. Boleslaw 1 the Brave (Chrobry) (b. 967 - d. 17 June 1025).

2. A daughter, perhaps named Swietoslawa, perhaps identical to the legendary Sigrid the Haughty (b. 968/72 - d. ca. 1016), perhaps married firstly with Eric the Victorious, King of Sweden, and later wife of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, by whom she is said to have been mother of Canute the Great, King of Denmark, Norway and England.

3. Gunhilda of Poland, who married Swyen 1 Forkbeard, King of Denmark and England

Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Abt 0934, Danmark; Konge. Rådde over Danevelde.

Notes:

Birth:
Gorm den Gamle omtales av Snorre Sturlason og Adam av Bremen. Snorre kaller ham for Gorm Hardeknutsson. Det er derfor man har gått ut ifra at Gorm var sønn av Hardeknut. Gorms forfedre kan ha sin opprinnelse hos danske herskere i East Anglia i England. En av disse het Guthrum, som er en form av navnet Gorm. Hans far kom til Danmark rundt 916 eller 917 og avsatte den unge kongen Sigtrygg Gnupasson. Da Hardeknut selv døde, arvet Gorm kongetronen. Antagelsen at han tok den med makt er sannsynligvis ikke riktig.

Occupation:
Gorm den Gamle var dansk konge i årene 934-940, med drottsete i Jelling på Jylland, og skal ha vært av Skjoldungeætten.

Gorm var sønn av den danske kongen Hardeknut og var selv far til Harald Blåtann, som etterfulgte ham som konge. Gorms senere slektning, Svein Estridsson, refererte til både Gorm og hans far som - konger av Danmark - men det er vanskelig å presisere Danmarks geografiske omfang under Gorm.

Moderne historikere mener at Gorm styrte fra Jelling og at han neppe var konge over hele Danmark, snarere over Jylland og Sønderjylland. Han regnes likevel ofte som den første konge i den danske kongerekken. Det skyldes at han er den første konge som nevnes i samtidige, danske kilder, det vil si de 2 runesteinene på Jelling.

Det ser ut som at Gorm kjempet seg frem til makten ved å riste av seg svenskene, som ville erobre Danmark. Gorm felte sin motstander Gnupa som hadde makten over grensestrøkene i sør.

Store erobringer fulgte i Gorms regjeringstid, deriblant Danelagen i England. Gorm la drottsetet til Jelling på Jylland.

Gorm er en av de mest misforståtte figurer i dansk historie. Han ble ofte svertet som en grusom og senil gamling og i tillegg en innbitt hedning. I virkeligheten var han verken gammel eller uklok. De tidligste kildene peker isteden på en pragmatisk og framsynt konge i forhold til Danmarks kristne naboer i syd.

Gorm nevnes en gang i tyske skrifter da han i 936 skal ha gitt erkebiskopen av Hamburg en kjølig mottakelse når erkebiskopen besøkte Danmark.

Tidligere historikere har ofte blandet sammen Gorm med hans far Hardeknut. Sistnevnte sto antagelig imot misjonering av kristendommen hele sitt liv. Dog kan den lille runesteinen på Jelling tolkes som om Gorm forsvarte Danmark mot kristendommen ettersom han upresist defineres som Danmarks beskytter. I den grad folk flest ble kristne skjedde det langsomt og møysommelig. I Gorms tid var det store flertallet hedninger, men under Harald Blåtann ble landet offisielt kristent. I løpet av kanskje de neste 2 generasjonene ble kristendommen også en naturlig del av hele befolkningens tro og tankesett.

Gorm ble gift med Tyre Danmarksbot (Danebod).

Idag er han mest kjent for den minste av Jellingesteinene som han reiste til minne over sin hustru Tyra.

Jelling var hovedsetet for danekongene i sen vikingtid. Minner etter disse ligger fortsatt og er noen av Danmarks mest kjente fortidsminner. Jelling kirke ligger midt mellom 2 store gravhauger, Danmarks største, hver på over 70 meter i diameter og opp mot 10 meter høye. Sagnet sier at det er Danmarks grunnleggere og første kongepar – Kong Gorm og dronning Tyra – som ligger begravet her i hver sin haug.

Ved kirken står 2 berømte runesteiner, de såkalte Jellingsteinene. Disse står ikke på opprinnelige sted, men de er sikkert opprinnelig reist i tilknytning til kongesetet.

Kong Gorms stein er minst, og eldst. Den er reist av kong Gorm den gamle til minne om hans dronning. Teksten lyder:

Kong Gorm gjorde disse kumler (minnesmerker) etter sin kone Danmarks bod.

Kong Haralds stein går i faglitteraturen ofte bare under navnet Jellingsteinen. Innskriften er spesiell, i og med at den er ordnet i vannrette linjer, ikke loddrette som er det vanlige ved runesteiner. Innskriften lyder:

Kong Harald bød gjøre disse kumler etter Gorm sin far og etter Thyre sin mor, den Harald som vant seg hele Danmark og Norge og gjorde danene kristne.
Fortidsminnene ved Jelling; gravhaugene, kirken og runesteinene er nå oppført på UNESCOs liste over verdens kulturminner.

Buried:
Begravet i Nordhaugen omkring 958-959 i Jelling.

Died:
Det antas at Gorm ved sin død ble begravd i gravkammeret i den nordlige gravhaugen i Jelling, og at han senere ble flyttet til en grav i kirken. Trestokker fra gravkammeret er datert dendrokronologisk. Det viste seg at treet var hogd ned sent på året 958. Gorm må altså ha vært død dette året. Gorms skjelett er funnet ved en utgravning i kirken, og en undersøkelse av det har vist at han ved sin død var mellom 35 og 50 år gammel.

Gorm married Thyre Haraldsdatter before 0930. Thyre (daughter of Harald Halvdansen) was born between 0846 and 0900; died before 0958. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Notes:

Birth:
Man har antatt at hun ble født helt i begynnelsen av 900-tallet, men vi vet lite om hennes opprinnelse. Det er motstridende opptegnelser om hennes foreldre.

Saxo Grammaticus sier at hun var datter av - Æthelred, konge av England - hvilket i så fall må ha vært Ethelred av Wessex, men denne informasjonen regnes ikke som sannsynlig eller troverdig.

Snorre Sturlasson, som skrev over 300 år etter at Tyra levde, mener at hennes far var en konge eller jarl av Jylland eller kanskje Holstein (som i dag er et område i Nordtyskland) og het Harald Klakk Halvdansson.

Uansett riktighet er Snorre langt mer troverdig enn Saxo.

Ifølge Roland Stenberg var hennes navn Thyra Danebod Klacksdatter, født ca.880, og ved hennes død reiste Gorm en runesten over henne.

Died:
Da ektemannen Gorm reiste steinen som minne over Tyra m? man g? ut fra at hun d?de f?r ham, alts? en gang f?r ?r 958.

Notes:

Married:
Thyra Danebod var en dansk dronning, gift med kong Gorm den gamle og mor til Harald Blåtann. Man antar at hun ledet en hær mot tyskerne.

Tyra har blitt referert til som en kvinne med stor klokskap. Den eneste skriftlige kilden som bekrefter henne som noe annet en sagndronning er tekstene på runesteinene på Jellinge.
Tilnavnet Danebod er avledet av de to siste ord på Den lille Jellingsteinen: Danmarks bod.
Det er likevel noe usikkert om teksten henviser til henne eller Gorm, og faktisk også hva ordet betyr.

Tradisjonen vil ha det til at hun var ansvarlig for å bygge Danevirke, en forsvarmur langs grensen helt syd i Danmark. Den lille Jellingsteinen som Gorm reiste, referer som nevnt til henne som Danmarks bot, mest sannsynligvis i betydningen den som bøtet på/forbedret/hjalp Danmark. Det kan henspille på at hun ledet en hær mot tyskerne.

Tradisjonen vil også ha det til at før Tyra aksepterte å gifte seg med Gorm insisterte hun på at han bygget et nytt hus som hun kunne sove i for de første tre nettene av vinteren. For hver av nettene drømte hun en drøm. Drømmene ble fortalt på bryllupsfesten og fortolket, skjønt de var ikke originale ved at de imiterer drømmene Farao hadde som ble fortolket av Josef i Første Mosebok: oksespannet som kommer opp av havet (fruktbar høst) og fugler (ære for den konge som skal bli født).

Med Gorm fødte hun senere Harald Blåtann som etterfulgte Gorm som konge av Danmark.

En annen myte som ble fortalt var at hennes datter ble fanget av troll og fraktet vekk til et rike som langt nord, hinsides Hålogaland og Bjarmeland.

Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Polen

Ziemoslav married Gorka between 0922 and 0945. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Other Events and Attributes:

• Occupation: Abt 0935, Böhmen, Tsjekkia; Hertug.

Notes:

Occupation:
Boleslav was the ruler (knize, literally prince, but usually translated as duke) of Bohemia from 935 to his death. He was the son of Vratislaus 1 and the younger brother of his predecessor, Wenceslaus 1.

Boleslav is notorious for the murder of his brother Wenceslaus, through which he became Duke of Bohemia. Wenceslaus was murdered during a feast; at precisely that time Boleslav's son was allegedly born. He received a strange name: Strachkvas, which means a dreadful feast. Being remorseful for what he had done, Boleslav promised to devote his son to religion and educate him as a clergyman.

Despite the fratricide, Boleslav is generally respected by Czech historians as an energetic ruler who significantly strengthened the Bohemian state and expanded its territory. The pro-Christian religious policies pursued by Wenceslaus do not appear to have been a cause for Boleslav's fratricide, since Boleslav in no way impeded the growth of Christianity in Bohemia, and in fact actually sent his daughter Mlada, a nun, to the Pope in Rome to ask permission to make Prague a bishopric.
One of Boleslav's major concerns was the tribute paid yearly to the East Frankish kings. He stopped the payment shortly after he ascended the throne, which led to the prolonged war with King Otto the Great. This conflict, presumably consisting of border raids (the general pattern of warfare in this region at the time), reached its conclusion in 950 when Boleslav signed a peace treaty with Otto. Despite being undefeated, he promised to resume the payment of the tribute. Five years later, the armies of Czechs and Germans allied against the Magyars in the victorious Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955. Boleslav had also helped Otto to crush an uprising of Slavs on the Lower Elbe in 953.

After the Battle of Lech, the rest of the huge Magyar army turned to Bohemia, where it was crushed by Boleslav. Because of this victory, Boleslav freed Moravia from Magyar raids and expanded his territory to Upper Silesia and Malopolska. To strengthen the Bohemian-Polish alliance, Boleslav's daughter Dobrawa married the pagan Piast prince Mieszko I in 965, and helped bring Christianity to Poland. Boleslav's wife may have been Biagota. He was succeeded by his oldest son Boleslaus the Pious.

Anerkjente keiseren som lensherre 946. Utvidet riket med Mähren og deler av Galitsja og Schlesien.

Boleslav married Biagota. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Notes:

Married:
It is not even sure that Biagota was the mother of all four adult children of Boleslaus 1 (Dobrawa, Boleslaus 2 of Bohemia, Strachkvas and Mlada of Bohemia).

Her origins are unclear. She could have originated from one of the German states of the Holy Roman Empire or from a Slavic country (Blahota or Bjegota was an old Bulgarian name).